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Dyslexia is a difficulty with the acquisition of reading,
writing and
spelling which may be caused by a combination of phonological,
visual and
auditory processing deficits. Word retrieval and speed of
processing
difficulties may also be present. The manifestation of dyslexia
in any
individual will depend upon not only individual cognitive
differences, but
also the language used. (Ian Smythe, 2000)
The above definition of dyslexia may be seen as a starting
point for the
investigation of what the underlying difficulties of the dyslexic
individual, and how we can assess those difficulties. It also
provides the
platform to create the individual education plan which will
allow us to
deliver appropriate teaching, and enable the child to acquire
the necessary
literacy skills.
There are many skills that are important to acquire in order
to develop
adequate skills necessary in an increasingly literate society.
These skills,
many of which we take for granted, include development of
spoken language,
understanding symbolic representation, sequencing skills,
grapho-motor
skills, development of phonological (language sound) storage,
orthographic
(written language representation) and semantic (meaning based)
storage
systems, and the sharing and integration of the different
systems. Only by
understanding the development, and difficulties, of those
and the other
areas involved in literacy skill acquisition will be be able
to effectively
help the dyslexic child.
In working with both the local community, teachers and the
education
authority, it was realised that whilst a definitive "diagnosis
of dyslexia"
may sound useful, but it did not provide additional information
to help
determine an appropriate education plan for these children.
The approach
that appears to offer more for the child is to create a procedure
to assess
the cognitive profile (eg auditory short term memory and riming
skills) to
aid the understanding of the preferred learning style, as
well as the
current level of attainment in literacy skills of the children.
This will
provide valuable information that may account for their difficulty
in
acquiring literary skills. Only once we have this information
could we hope
to construct that appropriate individual education plan.
What does a cognitive profile offer that a label of dyslexia
does not?
It is generally accepted that the more closely the teaching
style is matched
to learning style of the individual, the greater the amount
that will be
learnt in a given time. We know that if you make it culturally
relevant, the
child will learn more. And if the child is a 'visual' learner
and more
visual support material is used, learning is facilitated.
But unless we can
deduce the child's learning style, through a thorough investigation
of all
the abilities and difficulties, including their cognitive
skills and
deficits, much of what is presented to them may not be learnt,
or learn
ineffectively. An appropriate assessment will allow us not
only how the
child learns, but also what and how they should be taught.
Dyslexia is not a result of a single difficulty, which may
be better
understood if we compare it with short-sightedness. If a specialist
tells
you that a child is short-sighted, you know the implications
- they need
glasses. But they need glasses of the right strength to be
effective. Only
by measuring the child's eyes, using a variety of techniques,
will the
correct prescription be made. If there is a considerable mismatch
between
the needs and provisions, the glasses to be useless, or even
damage their
eyes.
The analogy for dyslexia is that the label 'dyslexia' tells
us very little,
like saying one needs glasses. What is required is a full
assessment of the
difficulties. But where the glasses may be specified fairly
easily (usually
only needing to refer to strength and astigmation), the cognitive
difficulties which may cause reading and writing problems
are many, since
there are many abilities required to read and write. If the
'dyslexia
prescription' is poor conceived and constructed, the child
may receive help
that is not only useless, but may even be damaging, if not
directly, then at
least emotionally as they continue to fail academically.
Most teachers will not have access to assessment procedures.
But there are
checklist that may aid the identification of those children
with specific
learning difficulties. Although these will not provide information
on the
specific underlying difficulties, they can help confirm the
concerns of the
teachers and parents.
Below is a checklist, which separates out two types of difficulties;
literacy related, and behaviour related. These are some of
the most common indicators used to identify the dyslexic individual.
Literacy related difficulties
- has particular difficulty with reading in spelling
- puts the letter the figures the wrong way around
- as difficulty with tables, alphabet
- these letters out of words Robertson in the wrong order
- he takes longer than average to do written work
- gets "tied up" using long words, e.g. preliminary
philosophical
- as difficulty with nursery rhymes
Behavioural identifiers
- as difficulty telling left and right, order of months
of the year etc
- as a core sense of direction
- like self-confidence and has a core self-image
- is often accused not listening or paying attention
- difficulty with most skills\
- difficulty with clapping a simple rhythm
- surprise you because in other ways he is bright and alert
However, it is important to remember that just because a
child may have a
number of these difficulties, it does not mean they are dyslexic.
Many
things may influence a child's literacy development, including
the learning
environment, and it is only with a full assessment of the
difficulties, by
somebody appropriately trained, that it will it be possible
to confirm the
reason for the failure to acquire literacy skills.
The framework suggested for assessment of the specific difficulties
of the
child with literacy difficulties is based around the International
Cognitive
Profiling Test (ICPT), developed by the author. It is uses
the following
framework;
Phonological segmentation and assembly skills
Auditory system
Visual system
Semantic lexicon
Speed of processing
Each of these components may be considered as a separate 'module'
in the
brain, and it is the relative functioning of each of these
that determine
the ability of a child in the acquisition of literacy skills.
However, it is important to remember that each of these areas
has several
components, each of which, in turn, need to be evaluated.
For example, the
auditory system tests include auditory short term memory and
sound
discrimination.
Research clearly shows that the ability to acquire literacy
skills is poorly
related to the overall intelligence of the individual, and
therefore any
measure of intelligence does not indicate their potential
to acquire
literacy skills. Of course, this does not mean that intelligence
is not
important, as the ability of the child to understand instructions,
for
example, will determine the way they are taught. But a measure
of
'intelligence' should not be used to determine the level of
provision given.
There is no definitive list of tests that should be used,
but the following
list provides an indication of the tests one could expect
to be included in
the formal assessment of the dyslexic individual.
Basic skills: alphabet and number, including reversals, book
knowledge, days
of the week
Visual tasks - Shape copying, visual recall of shapes, and
visual sequential
memory
Spelling words and non-words
Auditory memory: digit span (forward and reverse) and tapping
task
Reading words and non-words
Phonological segmentation skills: alliteration and rhyme tasks
Rapid naming - picture, number and letter
Sound discrimination
Reasoning ability: Ravens Matrices
Free reading
Free writing
Listening comprehension
Reading comprehension
Measure of spoken vocabulary
Motor skills
Comprehensive questionnaire, including medical and learning
history.
Whilst the dyslexic individual may experience difficulties
in the
acquisition of reading, writing and spelling, they can be
taught to find
strategies and alternative learning methods to overcome most
of these and
other difficulties. However some problems, such as poor spelling,
may
persist into adulthood.
Every dyslexic is different, and should be treated as an
individual. Many
show talents actively sought by employers, such as good visuo-spatial
skills, an ability to think holistically and see the bigger
picture, and
good lateral thinking. The same factors that cause literacy
difficulties may
also be responsible for highlighting positive attributes.
For example, those
finding difficulty solving a problem the way others do may
tap resources
that lead to more originality and creativity, a talent often
noted in the
dyslexic individual. Some people suggest that these attributes
are only
discovered thanks to the difficulty acquiring literacy skills.
It is the role of the assessor to find out the reason for
the individual
having difficulties in acquiring literacy skills. It is the
role of the
teacher to find way these individual can learn.
If he cannot learn the way we teach, can we teach the
way he learns.
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